Anthracnose is a widespread disease of banana fruits. The disease produces unsightly blemishes on the fruit peel, which make them unacceptable to consumers. Infection normally begins as small black circular specks during the pre-harvest stage. Affected fruits ripen prematurely, rot and eventually shrivel. 

• Infection begins as small, black circular specks on the flowers and peel of the fruit at the distal end of the hands.
• Salmon pink coloured spore masses of the pathogen appears as the lesion increase in size and coalesce to form large sunken blackened areas mainly at the fruit ankles.
• Affected fruit ripens prematurely, rots and eventually shrivel.
• The disease may spread to crown and affects other fingers also.

The symptoms are characteristic of the disease and can be easily distinguishable from other diseases.

Anthracnose fruit rot is caused by Colletotrichum musae. High humidity, high temperature and the presence of rain promote infection. The conidia of the fungus survive in dead and decaying leaves and fruits. They get dispersed by water, wind and insects.

The conidia adhere to the fruit peel and start producing inoculums when the fruit start ripening. The fungus also enters the fruit through small wounds in the peel. It later germinates and produces fungal appressoria that initiate the expression of symptoms.

Banana bract mosaic disease is one of the most serious virus diseases of banana. The disease is popularly known as ‘Kokkan’. The disease causes pinkish lines on the pseudostem and leaf sheaths. And the infested palm looks more like a traveler’s palm. Since, the disease is caused by virus, chemical control is of no use. Therefore, special care should be taken to prevent disease infestation.

• Reddish/pinkish streaks of few mm to 10 cm length appear on the pseudostem, petiole and midrib
• Later the pinkish streaks turn to dark brownish or blackish and become necrotic streaks which remain throughout the growth period
• Numerous reddish/pinkish streaks make the entire pseudostem reddish or pinkish
• Outermost leaf sheath will be more reddish or pinkish and it progress to the inner sheath as reddish or pinkish streaks
• The outer leaf sheaths detach from the pseudostem in succession and break at the base
• Sometimes vertical spits can be seen on pseudostem
• Leaves are arranged in both sides of the affected plant in a single plane giving a traveller’s palm appearance
• Leaves produced will be gradually reduced in size with reddish or pinkish petiole and midrib
• Lamina shows mosaic mottling and becomes brittle
• Affected plant produces only a small bunch with chlorotic to dark brown streaks on the bracts
• The fingers are small, curved and widely divergent with pale green to ashy green colour as compared to healthy ones
• The bunch never matures and fingers rot
• The fingers take more time for ripening and pulp is unfit for consumption
• New suckers from diseased plants show necrotic streaks or abnormal colour on the pseudostem

The symptoms of banana bracts mosaic disease are characteristic of the disease and can be easily distinguished.

Banana bract mosaic disease is caused by a virus called banana bract mosaic virus (BBMV). The disease is transmitted locally in a persistent, circulative manner by the banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa). Distribution over long distances occurs by the movement of infected vegetative planting material such as suckers, corms, and tissue-cultured plantlets. Banana bunchy top disease is not soil-borne and is unlikely to be spread on cutting tools.

The banana bracts mosaic virus is systemic and therefore is present in all plant parts, including the rhizome and the suckers. The virus is transmitted by the banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa. The disease symptom appears in about 35 to 45 days after inoculation by the insect. The aphid is required to feed on the infected plant for a minimum of about 17 hours before it can transmit the disease and the incubation period inside the vector may be from 90 minutes to 48 hours, and they retain the infective capacity for about 13 days. The vector usually attacks the host around the basal portion of the pseudostem, but at times they may be found on the upper leaf sheaths and petioles. The insect may carry the disease to long distances.

The disease is widespread in areas were mysore poovan or palayankodan is grown. It is caused by a virus which does not have any chemical control. Therefore, careful selection of planting materials and management methods is very much essential for managing the disease.

• Discontinuous yellow streaks along the blade or midrib which turns into necrotic patches. In severe cases necrotic streaks can be seen on pseudostem, petiole, lower side of the midrib etc.
• Reduction in yield due to this virus disease is more prominent in first and second ratoons.

The symptoms are characteristic of the disease and can be easily distinguishable from other diseases.

Citrus mealy bug Planococcus citri transmit banana steak virus in a semi persistent manner from banana to banana.

The virus on infection causes distraction to the plant tissue. This in turn causes considerable reduction in the photosynthetic area and yield.

Birds and squirrel are common in our fields. At times they eat the fruit and cause damage to the bunch. Therefore, having an eye on their movement will help us to see what damage they cause. 

• Fruits eaten by birds will show characteristic holes on them.

The symptoms are characteristic of the problem.

Birds and squirrel that comes in large numbers when the fruit starts ripening and cause the damage.

The birds eat the fruit with their its beak. The marking of the beak can be very well seen on the fruit. 

Boron is an element needed for the formation of starch from sugars. To establish a crop yielding 50 tones per hector per year, the plant need 1.27 kg of boron per hector per year. If sufficient quantity of organic manure and mineral nutrients are not added, deficiency of boron will be noticed.

• Boron deficiency occurs more in humid areas
• In deficient plants, the veins are very close, raised above the lamina and leaves become brittle initially
• In later stages, chlorotic spots parallel to midrib and corrugation and laddering symptoms also appear and unfolding of leaf is delayed in addition to the yield reduction
• Interveinal chlorosis and striation at right angles to main veins
• Leaves curl and become deformed. Flag leaf is also deformed
• Leaf tip exhibits browning and breaks
• Severe deficiency causes all growth to stop
• Distal part of the inflorescence comes out and the basal part gets stuck up at the throat

Calcium and sulphur deficiency symptoms also come similar with boron deficiency symptoms. In calcium deficiency, there is marginal chlorosis and in sulphur deficiency pale green to yellow discoloration. These can be distinguished from boron deficiency where there are perpendicular streaks across the veins.

Boron deficiency is caused when the recommended soil concentration of boron in soil goes below the range 0.1 to 1.0 p.p.m.

The physiology of boron tolerance and boron toxicity is not well understood.

Bronzing is a stress related physiological disorder that occurs in banana fruits. The affected fruits show characteristic discoloration and cracking of the peel.

• Symptoms include discolouration and cracking of the peel.
• It begins as a light brown tinge on the outer exposed portion of fingers,
• progresses into reddish brown stripes and patches and finally develops into solid dark brown lesions.
• Later this dries and forms longitudinal cracks

The problem is characteristic of the disorder and can be easily distinguished.

The problem is caused due to stress during the flower emergence and development stage.

The cells of the underlying layers of banana peel expand at a faster rate for a long period of time than epidermal cells. This pattern of growth gives rise to a point of weakness at the cell edge. Further, the epidermal cells are subjected to circumferential stress during fruit growth and it exceeds its elastic limit and separation of cells at anticlinal walls of adjacent epidermal cells. Hence, red brown discoloration occurs.

Bunchy top is a major viral disease of banana. The disease is prevalent throughout the country and causes widespread damage. It is caused by a virus which does not have any chemical control. Therefore, careful selection of planting materials and management methods is very much essential for managing the disease.

• Prominent dark green streaks occur in the petioles, midribs and along the leaf veins. This is the most characteristic symptom for early diagnosis
• Irregular dark green streaks appear on leaves. Leaves become dark green, small, brittle and erect with prominent veins
• The leaves will get bunched together at the apex of the pseudostem to form a rosette or bunchy top
• The whole plant gets stunted as the leaf stalks fail to elongate
• Subsequently produced leaves become smaller. Finally leaf production stops
• Newly produced suckers become infected, stunted and produce numerous thick, dark green necrotic leaves
• Plants infected at an early stage of development do not produce bunch, though with later infections a distorted bunch may be formed. In very late infections, the only symptom to occur may be dark green streaks on the tips of the flower bracts of the bell.

The symptoms are characteristic of the disease and can be easily distinguishable from other diseases.

Bunchy top disease is caused by a virus called banana bunchy top virus. The disease is transmitted locally in a persistent, circulative manner by the banana aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa). Distribution over long distances occurs by the movement of infected vegetative planting material such as suckers, corms, and tissue-cultured plantlets, banana bunchy top disease is not soil-borne and is unlikely to be spread on cutting tools. Colocasia esculenta is the symptom less reservoir of the virus.

The bunchy top virus is systemic and therefore is present in all plant parts, including the rhizome and the suckers. The virus is transmitted by the banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa. The disease symptom appears in about 35 to 45 days after inoculation by the insect. The aphid is required to feed on the infected plant for a minimum of about 17 hours before it can transmit the disease and the incubation period inside the vector may be from 90 minutes to 48 hours, and they retain the infective capacity for about 13 days.
The vector usually attacks the host around the basal portion of the pseudostem, but at times they may be found on the upper leaf sheaths and petioles. The insect may carry the disease to long distances. The bunchy top virus has also been transmitted to Heliconia sp. also.

Nematode is one of the major limiting factors to banana production. There are four economically important nematode pests for banana. They include burrowing nematode, root lesion nematode, spiral nematode and root-knot nematode. These nematodes attack root and causes damage on them. As a consequence the plant becomes week and sometimes gets toppled.

• The first symptom of the attack is a small dark spot/ lesions on the root.

• Narrowing of leaves and delayed flowering results out of the attack.

• The number of fruits in the bunch is reduced and individual fruits are small

• Affected plants do not respond to fertilizers, irrigation or cultural practices. Nematode population builds up rapidly in ratoon crops

• The infected plant topples over easily during wet and windy weather because of inadequate anchorage.

The nematode attack causes stunted growth and yellowing. Eventually the plant will get broken at the crown region. Similar symptoms are caused because of rhizome rot, rhizome weevil attack, drought etc.

Radopholus similis

The nematode feeds on the root tissue by piercing inside. Extensive feeding result in formation of gall that blocks the conduction of water and nutrients. Fungi rapidly invade such damaged root tissue. The infected plant topples over easily during wet and windy weather because of inadequate anchorage.

Calcium is an element needed for the maintenance of cell wall constituents. It also neutralizes the soil from the ill effects of acidity and creates a conducive atmosphere for plant growth. To establish a crop yielding 50 tones per hector per year, the plant need 227 Kg of calcium per hector per year. If sufficient quantity of organic manure and lime are not added, deficiency of calcium will be noticed.

• Deficiency symptoms appear in the younger leaves owing to low mobility of calcium within the plant
• Early foliar symptoms include yellow stripes parallel to leaf midrib and crinkling of leaves
• Leaf thickening and marginal interveinal chlorosis as the plant grows
• If the deficiency is severe, the leaves develop serrated or saw like margins and are completely deformed
• Heart leaf exhibits chlorosis followed by necrosis
• Prolonged and severe deficiency prevents the emergence of new leaves and ultimately the plant dies
• When plants outgrow their calcium or boron supply it results in deformed, bunchy and yellow leaves at the center/top of the plant resembling bunchy top disease.

Deformation of the flag leaf can also be induced by poorly placed herbicide applications such as glyphosate and can be erroneously confused with deficiencies of Ca, Zn or B. Similarly, symptoms of viral attack can be mistaken for deficiencies of these elements. To confirm that the plant does not have banana bunchy top disease, check closely for symptoms such as Morse code and petiole streaking that represent the bunchy top disease

Calcium deficiency can be caused by one or more of the following:
• Small amounts of available Ca in soil (degraded, acid, sandy soils)
• Alkaline pH with a wide exchangeable Na:Ca ratio resulting in reduced Ca uptake. Use of irrigation water rich in NaHCO3.
• Wide soil Fe:Ca or Mg:Ca ratios resulting in reduced Ca uptake.
• Excessive N or K fertilizer application resulting in wide NH4:Ca or K:Ca ratios and reduced Ca uptake.
• Excessive P fertilizer application, which may depress the availability of Ca (due to formation of Ca phosphates in alkaline soils).

Calcium is a constituent of Ca pectates, important cell wall constituents also involved in biomembrane maintenance. It helps in cell wall stabilization as an enzyme activator, in osmoregulation, and in the cation-anion balance.
Ca is less mobile in than Mg and K. Because Ca is not retranslocated to new growth, deficiency symptoms usually appear first on young leaves. Ca deficiency also results in impaired root function and may predispose the to Fe toxicity.

Choke throat is a disease of banana caused by low temperature. When low temperature synchronizes during flowering, bunch emergence is affected. Half emerged bunches is the characteristic feature of the disease. The disease can also delay the harvest time by 5-6 months.

• It is due to low temperature affecting active growth of the plant
• Leaves become yellow and in severe cases, the tissue gets killed
• Bunch development is normal, but when the time of flowering synchronizes with low temperature, the bunch is unable to emerge from the pseudostem properly.
• The distal part of the inflorescence comes out and the basal part gets stuck up at the throat. Hence, it is called Choke throat
• Maturity of the bunch is delayed by about 5-6 months

Deficiency of Calcium and Boron also leads to similar symptoms. However, choke throat is very much characteristic to the physiological disorder and occurs only when low temperature synchronizes the flowering period.

Chock throat is caused when low temperature period synchronize the bunch emergence period.

The normal emergence of bunch is stopped because of the disease. The distal part of the inflorescence comes out and the basal part gets stuck up at the throat

Cigar end rot is an important disease of banana. The disease is prevalent in almost all banana growing tracts. The disease affects the developing fingers. The tip end of the fingers gets dried up and resembles the greyish ash of a cigar. And such fingers are readily rejected in the market. Therefore, control of the disease is very much important in banana cultivation.

• A black necrosis spread from the perianth into the tip of immature fingers.
• The pulp of the affected fruit undergoes a dry rot. The dry rot can spread up to 2 cm from the tip.
• The corrugated necrotic tissue become covered with the mycelia of the fungi and resembles the greyish ash of the cigar-end.
• If emerging fingers are affected, the entire fingers sometimes get rotten.

The symptoms are characteristic of the disease and can be easily distinguishable from other diseases.

Cigar end rot is caused by the fungus Verticillium theobromae. The incidence of the disease is found to be high during summer season. The fungus is commonly seen in leaf trash and flowers. Conidia are disseminated in air currents and infect drying flower parts.

A black necrosis spread from the perianth into the tip of immature fingers. The pulp of the affected fruit undergoes a dry rot. The dry rot can spread up to 2 cm from the tip. And such fingers are readily rejected in the market.

Cordana leaf spot is one of the most important fungal diseases of banana. The disease is prevalent in almost all banana growing tracks. The disease produces eye shaped spots with definite concentric zonations. These spots later joins and causes yellowing and drying of leaves. Therefore, management of the disease is very much important in banana cultivation.

• Yellow or pale brown oval shaped spots appear near the leaf margins of lower leaves

• As the spots develop, the central necrotic area develops concentric zonation with surrounding yellow halo

• Individual spots enlarge or several spots coalesce to form large infected areas

• When the leaf margins are infected, small concentric spots develop which is later converted into long stripes of pale brown necrotic tissues. The stripes sometimes extend upto midrib

There are a number of leaf spots diseases in banana. The leaf spot caused by Deightoniella torulosa is characterized by an inverted ‘V’ shaped appearance. In case of freckle leaf spot, numerous minute black spots cover the leaf lamina. The Sigatoka leaf spot is characterized by pale yellow/dark brown/black streaks running parallel to veins, especially on lower leaves.

Cordana musae

The inoculums spread through water and air. And the growth of the fungus is accelerated in hot and humid condition with frequent rains. The spread of the fungus is rapid in closely planted fields.

The fungus on infection causes distraction to the plant tissue. This in turn causes considerable reduction in the photosynthetic area and yield.

• Remove and destroy severely affected leaves.
• In severe cases, spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.4% Mancozeb (4g/L) along with stickers
• Oil based formulations of copper oxy chloride (Oleop) @ 0.2-0.4% (2-4g/L) is also recommended

Deightoniella leaf spot is very much common in banana gardens. The disease is characterized by presence of inverted ‘V’ shaped leaf spots towards leaf edge. The reduction in photosynthetic area, stunted growth and yield loss results out of the disease. Therefore, appropriate control measures need to be adopted in accordance with the disease severity.

• The fungus causes three forms of the disease viz. black spot on leaf, fruit tip discolouration or black tip and fruit spot/speckle
• Round, pin point, black spots appear on the main veins of the lamina in the proximity to the leaf margin
• Gradually, these spots increase in size with narrow yellow margin
• The large spots dry in the centre with pale brown areas extending to the edge of the leaf blade giving the spots an inverted ‘V’ shaped appearance
• On fruits, black discolouration below the perianth advanced with irregular areas or yellowish margins along the fruits
• In some varieties, nearly round reddish brown spots or spots with black centre and a darker green, water soaked halo may be seen

There are a number of leaf spots in banana. The leaf spot caused by Deightoniella torulosa is characterrised by an inverted ‘V’ shaped appearance. In case of freckle leaf spot, numerous minute black spots cover the leaf lamina. The Sigatoka leaf spot is characterized by pale yellow/dark brown/black streaks running parallel to veins, especially on lower leaves.

A fungus called Deightoniella torulosa is the causal organism of the disease. The fungus is present in dead banana leaves and inoculum is produced during periods of rain and dew. Spores are violently discharged, when the humidity declines, and become airborne.

The fungus is air born. The spread of the fungus is rapid in closely planted fields. The fungus on infection causes distraction to the plant tissue. This in turn causes considerable reduction in the photosynthetic area and yield loss.

Banana is a plant that is very much sensitive to water. When the plant is kept under water logged situation for two or more days, leaf starts showing yellowing. And when the situation continues, the leaf sheaths start separating. Therefore, ensuring proper drainage is very much important in banana cultivation.

• Yellowing of the leaf
• Separation of the leaf sheaths

Yellowing of leaves can be caused because of many reasons. However, if the yellowing is caused after water logging, the problem can be confirmed

Water logging for two or more days continuously results in the problem.

Continuous submergence affects the conducting tissue. As a consequence yellowing of leaf happens.

Suckers are young banana plants seen surrounding the mother plant. They form the planting materials for the next crop. However, when the suckers are produced before, six months of the growth of the mother plant, a greater share of absorbed nutrients will get translocation to the suckers. This adversely affects the growth and development of the mother plant.

• The growth of mother plant will get affected. The plant shows stunted growth.

Stunted growth can be caused because of a number of factors. And over production of suckers is one among them.

When sucker production is not controlled in the initial growing period of banana, the problem can occur.

The young suckers compete with the mother plant for water and nutrients. This adversely affects the growth ad development of the mother plant.

Freckle leaf spot is very much common in banana gardens. The disease is characterized by the presence of numerous minute black spots in large numbers. The reduction in photosynthetic area, stunted growth and yield loss results out of the disease. Therefore, appropriate control measures need to be adopted in accordance with the disease severity.

• Very small dark brown to black spots  develops on the upper surface of the older leaves.
• This gives the leaf a sooty appearance and rough texture.
• Sometimes, spots may cluster in lines and appear as streaks running diagonally or horizontally across the leaf or from the mid rib to the leaf edge along the veins.
• Severely affected leaves will become yellow, wither and die prematurely.

There are a number of leaf spots in banana. The leaf spot caused by Deightoniella torulosa is characterized by an inverted ‘V’ shaped appearance. In case of freckle leaf spot, numerous minute black spots cover the leaf lamina. The Sigatoka leaf spot is characterized by pale yellow/dark brown/black streaks running parallel to veins, especially on lower leaves.

Freckle leaf spot is caused by a fungus called Phyllosticta musarum. The fungus develops in wet weather and in heavy rainfall. The spread is mainly through rain splashes.

The pycnidia stage of the fungus is present on the host and cause damage. The nature of damage will be distraction of tissue and subsequent reduction in photosynthetic rate.

Deightoniella causes small black spots on fruits. The affected fruit loses its market value in accordance with the level of severity. Hence, management of the disease before it affects the fruits much is very important.  

• The fungus causes three forms of the disease viz. black spot on leaf, fruit tip discolouration or black tip and fruit spot/speckle
• Round, pin point, black spots appear on the main veins of the lamina in the proximity to the leaf margin
• Gradually, these spots increase in size with narrow yellow margin
• The large spots dry in the centre with pale brown areas extending to the edge of the leaf blade giving the spots an inverted ‘V’ shaped appearance
• On fruits, black discolouration below the perianth advanced with irregular areas or yellowish margins along the fruits
• In some varieties, nearly round reddish brown spots or spots with black centre and a darker green, water soaked halo may be seen

The disease can be easily distinguished based on its symptoms.

A fungus called Deightoniella torulosa is the causal organism of the disease. The fungus is present in dead banana leaves and inoculum is produced during periods of rain and dew. Spores are violently discharged, when the humidity declines, and become airborne.

The fungus is air born. The spread of the fungus is rapid in closely planted fields. The fungus on infection causes distraction to the plant tissue. This in turn causes considerable reduction in the photosynthetic area and yield loss.

Hard lump is a condition affecting the fruit on maturity. Here the pulp becomes hardy in some areas and the taste become astringent. This normally happens when bunch emergence occurs during dry winter months. The fruit quality is greatly affected because of the disease. The disease is seen commonly in Rasthali.

• Hard lump or masses of varying sizes and shapes occur in the pulp
• Lumps are pinkish brown in colour and more firm than the usual pulp and taste like immature or unripe fruits, with the result that the quality of the fruit is affected

The symptoms are very much characteristic to the physiological disorder.

Occurrence of hard lump is seasonal and only bunches emerged during dry winter period exhibit the phenomenon

The bunch emergence during winter results in high accumulation of tannin in the fruit. The high concentration of tannin blocks the conversion of starch to sugar. This ultimately results in pinkish discoloration and astringent taste to the fruit.

Infectious chlorosis is one of the most common diseases of banana. The disease causes yellowish green patches and thickening of veins. Leaf sheaths also pull away from the pseudostem easily. Since, the disease is caused by virus, chemical control is of no use. Therefore, special care should be taken to prevent disease infestation.

• Chlorotic or yellowish green bands and patches or mottling seen over the entire area of young leaves
• Parallel chlorotic streaks develop on the younger leaves giving a striped appearance
• Subsequently produced leaves become small and distorted
• Margins become irregularly wavy, often with mosaic mottling and blotches of necrotic tissues
• In severe cases, rotted areas are found through out the leaf sheath and pseudostem
• Diseased plants do not reach maturity. Occasionally, they produce a bunch of fruit which never matures and is unfit for consumption
• Affected plants become stunted
• Youngest leaf shows chlorosis and rots resulting in heart rot
• Disease is noticed in many cultivable varieties like Nendran, Palyankodan, Karpooravally, Rasthali etc.

Infectious chlorosis produces symptoms that are common to any of the viral diseases. However, the disease causes yellowish green patches and thickening of veins. Leaf sheaths also pull away from the pseudostem easily.

Infectious chlorosis is caused by a virus called cucumber mosaic virus. The disease is transmitted locally in a non-persistent manner by the melon aphid (Pentalonia gossypii). Distribution over long distances occurs by the movement of infected vegetative planting material such as suckers, corms, and tissue-cultured plantlets. Infectious chlorosis disease is not soil-borne and is unlikely to be spread on cutting tools. Cucumber and Cucumis sativus var Khira serves as reservoir of the virus.

The disease causes yellowish green patches and thickening of veins. Leaf sheaths also pull away from the pseudostem easily. This in turn results in considerable reduction in photosynthetic area and affects growth.

Leaf eating caterpillars cause damage to leaf by defoliation. The caterpillars attack banana in groups during the early growth stages causing drying up of leaf in patches. The affected leaves shows irregular holes on them. The larvae remains hidden in the leaf axils during day time and feeds at night. When the population of the caterpillar is high, we need to adopt management tactics.

• These are smooth cater pillars. In the young stages, they can be seen in masses on the leaves scraping the green matter resulting in scarring on the leaves

• Grown up caterpillars hide in the leaf axils or at the plant base in soil or undersurface of dried leaves and bore the emerging leaf entering from the leaf axils. This results in occurrence of bore holes in a pattern as the leaf unfurls

Other caterpillars also cause damage of similar nature. However, at management level, the strategy is more or less similar.

Spodoptera litura

This is the caterpillar of a stout built moth measuring 3-8 cm in wing span and 1-8 cm in body length. The forewings are greyish brown with fine white zig-zag lines on them and the hind wings are white. Eggs are laid in batches covered with hairs on the leaves. A female lays upto 2000 eggs. Eggs hatch in a week. The larvae feeds on the tender leaves and become full grown in 2-3 weeks. The full fed larva is 3.7 cm long. The body is pale greenish brown with dark markings and a black ring encircling the body at both ends. It pupates in soil for one week.

The caterpillar feeds on the young leaves causing shot holes and eaten up areas. This considerably reduce the photosynthetic area and thereby growth and development.

Magnesium is an element closely associated with photosynthesis and protein synthesis. To establish a crop yielding 50 tones per hector per year, the plant need 125 kg of magnesium per hector per year. If sufficient quantity of organic manure and mineral nutrients are not added, deficiency of magnesium will be noticed.

• Typical deficiency symptom is yellowing of outside section of the lamina in older leaves, which is due to its mobility in the plant
• As the deficient leaf matures, chlorosis becomes more intense, and dark spots appear, that later become necrotic
• Affected leaves turns to intense golden yellow in colour
• Leaf arrangement is affected, leading to a rosette appearance
• Another characteristic symptom is a bluish-purple colouration on the petioles called blue sickness
• When deficiency is severe, the basal section of the petiole separates and breaks from the pseudostem, causing early leaf senescence

Deficiency symptoms caused by nutrient elements are characterized by the part in which symptoms are exhibited. In case of deficiency of iron, sulphur, boron, zinc and calcium, the symptoms are seen first on the younger leaves. But for phosperous, magnesium, manganese and potassium, the symptoms are first exhibited in the older leaves.
Calcium and sulphur deficiency symptoms also show similarity with boron deficiency symptoms. In calcium deficiency, there is marginal chlorosis and in sulphur deficiency pale green to yellow discoloration. These can be distinguished from boron deficiency where there are perpendicular streaks across the veins.

Mg deficiency can be caused by either of the following:
• Low available soil Mg.
• Decreased Mg uptake due to a wide ratio of exchangeable K:Mg (i.e., >1:1).

Magnesium activates several enzymes. It is a constituent of chlorophyll, and thus is involved in CO2 assimilation and protein synthesis because it activates several enzymes and is a constituent of chlorophyll. Mg also regulates cellular pH and the cation-anion balance. It is very mobile and is retranslocated easily from old leaves to young leaves. Deficiency symptoms therefore tend to occur initially in older leaves.

Main stalk rot is an important storage disease of banana. The disease occurs when banana is exported in bunches. Decay of the peduncle and dropping of fruits are the major symptoms. Therefore, care should be taken to avoid the development of the disease.

• Decay of the peduncle region of the bunch

• Rotting of the fruit starting from the proximal end.

• Production of characteristic sweetish order.
  Drooping of fingers from the lower bunch.

The symptoms are very much characteristic of the disease.

The disease is caused by a fungus Fusarium moniliforme var subglutinans. The disease occurs when banana is exported in bunches.

The fungus on infection causes distraction to the plant tissue. This in turn affects the market value of the fruits.

There are a number of sucking pests that suck the sap from banana leaf. The common pest includes mealy bug, scales, thrips etc. These pests suck the sap from the banana leaf and cause yellowing and wilting. Therefore, controlling these pests is very important in banana cultivation.

• Yellowish discolouration of the affected area as a result of sucking of sap.
• The pest colonize in certain areas only resulting in non uniform pattern of damage

Yellowing, wilting and stunted growth results out from a number of problems. However, presence of small insect colonies confirms the basic cause of the problem.

The common pests include the mealy bugs and thrips. The mealy bug can be easily distinguished as small whitish colonies of insects. The increased ant activity confirms their occurrence. Another, important pest is the thrips. The thrips are characterized by the production of galls.

Both the adults and nymphs remove plant sap using their sucking mouthparts.

Moko wilt is an important bacterial disease of banana. The disease is prevalent throughout the country. And almost all varieties of banana are susceptible to the disease. The primary symptom of the disease is sudden wilting of the plant. The wilted plant later get dried up and even collapse. And the infested bunches are rejected in export market. Therefore, control of the disease is very much important in banana cultivation.

• Affected plants show rapid wilting and collapse of the younger leaves
• Later, these symptoms progress towards the older leaves
• In Cavendish varieties, the lower leaves develop a yellowish tinge which quickly spreads all over the leaves
• Leaves acquire a tingly whitish-yellow appearance, become dry, flaccid and readily droop around the pseudostem
• Petiole breaks at its junction with lamina or pseudostem
• If the diseased suckers are planted, terminal leaf becomes necrotic and the plant dies
• Infected young sword suckers show wilting and blackening
• Vascular discolouration ranging from pale yellow to dark brown or bluish black in the form of a ring is seen at the central part of the pseudostem, when it is cut transversely
• Slimy drops of bacterial ooze which is greyish brown in colour appears at the transverse cut end of the pseudostem
• When fruit bunch is produced, the fingers appear distorted and turn yellow resulting in premature ripening of fruits
• The pulp turns into a very characteristic dark brown colour
• Blackened necrotic male buds with infection moving up the fruit stalk is another characteristic symptom

Panama wilt is often confused with moko disease. However, external symptom of panama wilt appears only after four months. But in case of moko disease, it is seen right from the beginning. The reddish tinge observed in case of Panama wilt is usually absent

Moko disease is caused by bacteria called Pseudomonas solanacearum (Syn. Ralstonia solanacearum). The bacterium is non-spore forming, gram-negative, short and rod shaped. The bacterium is readily transmitted from plant to plant by the pruning or cutting instruments. Spread can also occur from root to root. Insects like bees, wasps, and fruit flies also help in transmitting the bacterium.

Systematic invasion of the vascular system results in impairment of water movement followed by wilting. The growth regulating substance (indole 3 acetic acid), a metabolite of the pathogen also plays a role in pathogenesis. The premature yellowing is believed to be due to ethylene production by the pathogen. The bacteria lack tyrosinase and polyphenoloxidase and browning of vascular elements may be host response to infection. The major sources of infection are weed hosts, soils, infected roots and insects. Disease symptoms may appear in about 6th to 12th week after infection.

Monkey can cause great damage to banana plantation by way of eating the fruit. Normally, monkeys come in large numbers and eat the ripe fruit. Therefore, having an eye on their movement is very much important in areas where their population is high.

• Fruits will be eaten after removing their peel.
• Partially eaten fruits can also be seen.

Presence of monkeys in the area confirms the attack

Monkeys cause the damage.

Monkeys come in large numbers and eat the ripe fruit.

Nettle grub is a defoliating caterpillar in banana. The caterpillars attack banana during the rainy season. The affected leaves shows irregular holes on them. The larvae remains hidden in the leaf axils during day time and feeds at night. When the population of the caterpillar is high, we need to adopt management tactics.

• The caterpillars are creamy white and have stout bristle like hairs which produce strong allergic reactions on touch  • They feed on emerging leaves by staying at the leaf axils resulting in shapeless holes on the leaves

Other caterpillars also cause damage of similar nature. However, at management level, the strategy is more or less similar.

Miresa decedens

The caterpillar feeds on the young leaves causing shot holes and eaten up areas. This considerably reduce the photosynthetic area and thereby growth and development.

Nitrogen is an important nutrient needed for proper growth and development. To establish a crop yielding 50 tones per hectar per year, the plant need approximately 388 Kg of nitrogen per hectar per year. Further, the amount of nitrogen absorbed has a direct correlation with the yield of the plant. Therefore, application of the correct amount of nutrient in the right method is very much essential for banana cultivation.

• The most evident symptom is yellowing of leaves resulting from a reduction in chlorophyll content
• Yellowing commences in the older, lower leaves and subsequently affect younger leaves as the deficiency worsens.
• Petioles of the most affected leaves become short and show a pinkish discoloration
• Leaves emerge and develop on the top of each other resulting in a rosette appearance
• Plant height and leaf length is considerably reduced
• Growth and development is delayed and rate of leaf production

The visual symptoms of N deficiency can be confused with those of S deficiency, but S deficiency is less common and tends to first affect younger leaves. Mild N deficiency can be confused with Fe deficiency, but the latter affects the emerging leaf first. Similarly, Nitrogen deficiency will result in yellowing of the leaves. Similar symptoms are also produced in cases of severe weed competition, drought, water logging etc.

Nitrogen deficiency can be resulted due to many factors. As a first case there is no nitrogen addition and the field is under cultivation for a longer time. A second case is low nitrogen fertilizer use efficiency. This happen when loss of nitrogen happens through volatilization, de-nitrification, incorrect timing and placement. Loss in the form of leaching and seepage can happen when there is heavy rainfall. Another case is low soil microbial activity and poor biological nitrogen fixation.

N is an essential constituent of amino acids, nucleic acids, nucleotides, and chlorophyll. The photosynthetic rate and biomass production have a direct correlation with nitrogen uptake. Further, it also affects most of the yield parameters. So the deficiency of nitrogen affects the normal growth and development of the plant. As a consequent the biomass production and total yield of the plant will be affected.

Panama wilt is a major disease of banana. The disease is prevalent throughout the country. And almost all varieties of banana are susceptible to the disease. The primary symptom of the disease is sudden wilting of leaves and hanging of them around pseudostem. The wilted plant later get dried up and even collapse. And the infested bunches are rejected in export market. Therefore, control of the disease is very much important in banana cultivation.

• The leaves wilt, the petiole buckles and the leaf hangs between the pseudostem and the middle of lamina, while the leaf is still green
• The spindle leaf often stands green and erect while all other leaves wither, become yellowish-orange, collapse around the pseudostem and die
• Characteristic yellowing of older leaves accompanied by vascular discoloration in the outer leaf sheath
• The yellowing develops as a band along the margin and spreads towards the midrib
• Outer leaf sheaths of pseudostem above the soil level split longitudinally and pseudostem becomes hard
• Finally, the top leaf withers and dies
• The pseudostem soon gets surrounded by a number of daughter suckers, which are often not infected
• Dwarfing and stunting of young and old plants
• Roots show reddish discolouration and rot
• When an affected rhizome is cut transversely, reddish vascular strands appear as yellow, red or brown dots and streaks
• The diseased vascular strands become numerous and get deeply stained to form a reddish brown ring
• Typical vascular bundle discolouration is noticed in pseudostem and leaf sheath
• Yellow colour develops in the innermost or youngest leaf sheath and dark red to brown colour in the older or outer leaf sheaths
• The infected pseudostem and rhizome emits a characteristic foul odour and the plant dies

Panama wilt is often confused with moko disease. However, external symptom of panama wilt appears only after four months. But in case of moko disease, it is seen right from the beginning. Further, in moko disease internal portion of fruits are discolored, but not in panama wilt.

The soil born fungus Fusarium oxysporum is the cause of fusarium wilt. The fungus survives in the form of chlamidospores. The spread of the disease mainly happens through infested planting materials. The dissemination also happens through water and farm implements.

Root tips are the natural, initial sites of infestation. Chlamidospores germinate in response to exudates that originate from root tip. Later, they move to pseudostem and colonize the xylem tissues. These ultimately result in blockage of translocation of water and nutrients to different plant parts. And as consequence symptoms of the disease occurs.

Pesticides are chemicals used in the field to control weeds, insects and diseases. But, in some situations the use of pesticides moves over and above the recommended dosage. And a number of plant level symptoms results. Therefore, special care should be taken not to confuse pesticide toxicity with normal problems.

• Excess fertilizer application will result in marginal chlorosis of lower leaves followed by necrosis. A whitish discolouation or brown band appears, similar to sun burn apperras on the 2-5 leaves.
• Tridemorh applications for control of disease when goes overdose will result in yellowing of the leaf.
• Paraquat toxicity causes local chlorosis and necrosis on direct contact with leaves or live leaf sheaths.
• Glyphosate toxicity causes reduced growth rate, typical chlorosis and lamina deformations on younger leaves.
• Oxyfluorfen toxicity causes leaf necrosis on direct contact, marginal leaf necrosis when affected by gaseous form.
• Diuron toxicity causes yellowing along midrib of older leaves, spreading towards the margins; reduced growth rate.

The toxicity of chemical causes yellowing and chlorosis symptoms which are common to various nutrition deficiency disorders.

The problems typically happen if products are not used according to their recommendations - e.g., at the incorrect dosage, the wrong stage of crop growth, or sometimes if the product is carried into contact with the plant parts (e.g., water infiltration moves the product into the soil).

The effect varies, but damage may occur due to contact or due to translocation within the plant. Damage occurs at the time of or shortly after product application.

Phosphorous play the major functions in energy storage and transfer and membrane integrity. To establish a crop yielding 50 tones per hectar per year, the plant need 52 kg of phosphorous per hector per year. If sufficient quantity of organic manure and mineral nutrients are not added, deficiency of phosphorous will be noticed.

• Leaves exhibit slight marginal chlorosis followed by irregular necrosis
• Necrosis proceeds very rapidly and entire leaf dries prematurely
• Elongation ceases completely at a height of about 2 feet
• Leaf production is reduced
• Rosetting of leaves happens

Phosphorous  deficiency will produce dark green leaves that may be confused with excessive N application. P deficiency is often associated with other nutrient disorders such as Fe toxicity at low pH, Zn deficiency, Fe deficiency, and salinity in alkaline soils

Phosphorous deficiency is caused when the recommended soil concentration of Phosphorous in soil goes below the recommended range. And the possible reasons are:
Low indigenous soil P-supplying power.
• Insufficient application of mineral P fertilizer.
• Low efficiency of applied P fertilizer use due to high P-fixation capacity or erosion losses
• P immobilization in Ca phosphates due to excessive liming.
• Excessive use of N fertilizer with insufficient P application.

Phosphorus is an essential constituent of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), nucleotides, nucleic acids, and phospholipids. Its major functions are in energy storage and transfer and membrane integrity. It is mobile within the plant and promotes root development, early flowering, and ripening (especially where the temperature is low). It is particularly important in early growth stages. P is remobilized within the plant during later growth stages if sufficient P has been absorbed during early growth.

Potassium provides strength to plant cell walls and increases leaf area and leaf chlorophyll content. It improves the banana plant’s tolerance of adverse climatic conditions, lodging, insect pests, and diseases. Often, yield response to K fertilizer is only observed when the supply of other nutrients, especially N and P, is sufficient.

• Symptoms first appear on mature leaves and petioles
• The most characteristic symptom is the inward marginal yellowing of older leaf followed by marginal necrosis
• Chlorosis progresses very rapidly and in a day or two the whole leaf turns yellow with downward curling
• Subsequently the leaf dries up, petiole breaks and the leaf dies prematurely
• In deficient plants, banana bunches are short, slim and deformed as a consequence of poor fruit filling caused by reduced photosynthesis and sugar transportation

Leaf symptoms of K deficiency, particularly the yellowish brown leaf margins, are similar to those of virus diseases.

Deficiency of potassium at all stages of growth causes the problem. Potassium deficiency results out of:
• Low soil K-supplying capacity.
• Insufficient application of mineral K fertilizer.
• Small inputs of K by irrigation (irrigation water low in K).
• Low recovery efficiency of applied K fertilizer because of high K-fixation capacity or leaching losses.
• Presence of excessive amounts of reduced substances in poorly drained soils (e.g., H2S, organic acids, Fe2+), resulting in retarded root growth and reduced K uptake.

Potassium has essential functions in osmoregulation, enzyme activation; regulation of cellular pH, the cation-anion balance, regulation of transpiration by stomata, and the transport of assimilates (the products of photosynthesis). K provides strength to plant cell walls and is involved in the lignification of sclerenchyma—tissues with thickened cell walls. On the whole-plant level, K increases leaf area and leaf chlorophyll content, delays leaf senescence, and therefore contributes to greater canopy photosynthesis and crop growth.

K deficiency results in an accumulation of labile low-molecular-weight sugars, amino acids, and amines that are suitable food sources for leaf disease pathogens. Deficiency symptoms tend to occur in older leaves first, because K is very mobile within the plant and is re-translocated to young leaves from old senescing leaves. Often, yield response to K fertilizer is only observed when the supply of other nutrients, especially N and P, is sufficient.

Pseudostem borer is the most common and most serious pest of banana. Plant nearing flowering are attacked by the weevil. The grub of the weevil tunnels the pseudostem and cause greater damage to it. The visible symptoms of the pest are yellowing of the lower leaves, oozing of colourless jelly like viscous liquid from bore holes  and seen on pseudostem. Breaking of pseudostem can also happen in serious cases. Hence, control of this pest is very much important in banana cultivation. 

• Adult female weevil punctures and inserts eggs into the pseudostem. Grubs emerging out feed extensively on the pseudostem and thereby causes extensive tunnels inside.
• Colourless jelly like plant sap oozes out from minute boreholes on the pseudostem or leaf bases. This is the first symptom.
• The ooze later turns deep violet in colour. Chewed up material will also be pushed out through the holes
• Leaves turn yellow, dry up and finally, the plant collapses.

Pseudostem weevil causes yellowing and withering of lower leaves. Similar symptoms are also caused by rhizome rot, panama wilt and drought. However, the black internal discolouation and presence of grubs of the beetle inside the pseudostem confirms the problem.

Banana pseudostem weevil Odoiporus longicollis causes the damage. The weevil is reddish brown to black and measures 23-28 mm in length. Eggs are laid in air chambers of leaf sheath through slits cut on them. The apodous grub bores within the pseudostem making extensive tunnels. It pupates within a fibrous cocoon inside the tunnel. Life cycle is completed in 42 days. Adult lives for 90-120 days.

The apodous grub bores within the pseudostem making extensive tunnels. This in turn affects the translocation of nutrients and plant shows yellowing symptoms. Further, the severely infested pseudostem may break and or topple.

Rhizome rot is a disease caused by bacteria in banana. The disease is prevalent through out Kerala. The affected plants show discoloration and soft rotting of rhizomes and suckers. In severe cases toppling of the whole plant can happen. Therefore, appropriate management strategy should be adopted to control the disease.

• Affected plants show discolouration and soft rotting of rhizomes and suckers
• They have scanty roots with dark brown lesions and necrotic tips.
• The entire roots get blackended and rotted
• Badly affected plants remain stunted with water-soaked, discoloured leaf sheath bases and yellow leaf blades which give scorched appearance
• Pockets of dark water soaked areas and cavities develop in the rhizome
• Small sized fruits are produced which may fail to emerge from the shoot tip
• Newly planted rhizomes rot and fail to sprout
• On close examination, a soft blackened ring is seen on the pseudostem at the soil level
• The pseudostem tips over, breaking across the rotted portion, particularly at the ground level

Rhizomes rot result in overall reduction in growth and development of the plant. Similar symptoms occur in case of nematode attack and with nutrient deficiencies.

The disease is caused by bacteria called Erwinia carotovora The disease is more common in wet weather, particularly if the ground is poorly drained and field become waterlogged.

The causal bacteria invade the rhizome directly after planting via wounds or decaying leaf sheathes around the central bud and cause the damage.

Rhizome weevil is an important problem in banana cultivation. The grub of the weevil bores the rhizome and causes damage. The primary symptom is the death of the unopened leaves. This is followed by yellowing and drying of the outer leaves. Therefore, control of this insect is very much important in successful banana cultivation.

• Death of the unopened leaves/ pipe leaf.
• Premature withering of outer leaves is also noticed.
• Injury caused by grubs (larvae), which tunnel through the corms.
• Tunnels circular in cross section, become wider as the grub grows and are filled with dark-coloured debris
• Extensive feeding damage by grubs results in root destruction, slowed plant growth, scarcity of leaves. reduced fruit production, and, sometimes, toppled plants
• The tunneling by the grubs make the corms susceptible to invasion by secondary decay organisms.
• Production and growth of suckers reduced when parent plants are heavily damaged
• Affected sucker plants can be recognized by their dull, yellowish-green withered leaves. Relatively little damage is caused by adults feeding on plant tissues.

Rhizome weevil attack can be easily distinguished by the presence grubs of the insect and feeding holes on rhizome.

The female weevil deposits the eggs singly in cavities in the corm or pseudostem at ground level. The egg hatches in 5-8 days. The stout, creamy white, legless grubs have reddish-brown heads and fleshy white bodies. The grubs are normally found in the pseudostem upto 2 feet above the ground. It bores into the rhizome making tunnels within and becomes full grown in about 25 days. Grubs pupate within chambers that are usually close to the surface of the corms. The black, hard-shelled weevils are reported to live for as long as 2 years. The life cycle (egg to adult) of the weevil requires 30 to 40 days.

The damage is caused by the grub boring into the rhizome. Extensive feeding damage by grubs results in root destruction, slowed plant growth, scarcity of leaves. reduced fruit production, and, sometimes, toppled plants

Sigatoka is one of the most important fungal diseases of banana. The disease is prevalent in almost all banana growing tracts. And almost all varieties, particularly Nendran, are susceptible to the disease. The fungus produces leaf spots which later joins and causes yellowing and drying of leaves. Therefore, management of the disease is very much important in banana cultivation.

• The first symptom of the disease is the appearance of a pale yellow/dark brown/black streaks running parallel to veins, especially on lower leaves

• These streaks enlarge to form characteristic spots having dark brownish to black, linear-oblong areas with ill-defined border, often surrounded by yellow halo

• Centre of the spots dries out, becoming light grey margined by narrow dark brown or black border

• Most often, many of yellow streaks result in premature yellowing and drooping of leaves

• The spots on lower leaves of young plants are dark brown and oval to circular

• Several spots coalesce resulting in extensive blighting and drying of leaves

• In severe case, the petioles collapse and the leaves hang down from the pseudostem

• Unfolded heart leaf and 2-3 youngest open leaves usually do not show symptoms

There are a number of leaf spots diseases in banana. The leaf spot caused by Deightoniella torulosa is characterized by an inverted ‘V’ shaped blightining from the margin. In case of freckle leaf spot, numerous minute black spots cover the leaf lamina. The Sigatoka leaf spot is characterized by pale yellow/dark brown/black streaks running parallel to veins, especially on lower leaves.

Sigatoka leaf spot is caused by a fungus called Mycosphaerella musicola. The fungus produces conidia and ascospores which serve as inoculum. The inoculum spread through water and air. And the growth of the fungus is accelerated in hot and humid condition with frequent rains. The spread of the fungus is rapid in closely planted fields.

The fungus on infection causes distraction to the plant tissue. This in turn causes considerable reduction in the photosynthetic area and thereby yield.

Squirrels are common in our fields. At times they eat the fruit and cause damage to the bunch. Therefore, having an eye on their movement will help us to see what damage they cause.

• Fruits eaten by squirrel will show characteristic holes on them.
• Milky substance covering the fruit

Birds and squirrels cause damage of similar type.

Birds and squirrel that comes in large numbers when the fruit starts ripening cause the damage.

The birds eat the fruit through its beak. The marking of the beak can be very well seen on the fruit. Similarly the squirrel shows marking of the teeth.

There are a number of sucking pests that suck the sap from banana leaf. The common pest includes mealy bug, scales, thrips etc. These pests suck the sap from the banana leaf and cause yellowing and wilting. Therefore, controlling these pests is very important in banana cultivation.

• Yellowish discolouration of the affected area as a result of sucking of sap.
• The pest colonize in certain areas only resulting in non uniform pattern of damage

Yellowing, wilting and stunted growth results out from a number of problems. However, presence of small insect colonies confirms the basic cause of the problem.

The common pests include the mealy bugs and thrips. The mealy bug can be easily distinguished as small whitish colonies of insects. The increased ant activity confirms their occurrence. Another, important pest is the thrips. The thrips are characterized by bronzing of leaves.

Both the adults and nymphs suck plant sap.

Drought is a situation resulting from severe shortage of water. Banana plant needs around 1200 liters of water at different stages of its growth period. If that much water does not enter the soil through irrigation or rainfall, symptoms of drought will be noticed. And, if unchecked, drought can cause complete loss of the crop. Therefore, adopting appropriate drought management strategy is very much important for profitable cultivation of banana.

The primary symptom of drought is wilting of the plant. The wilted leaf slowly starts drying up and is noticed seen around the plant. The growth of the plant will be reduced. The pseudostem also becomes thin and weak due to the loss of water. And at a severe stage the plant may break down in wind. The confirmation symptom for drought is the presence of cracks in basins of the plant because of acute water shortage.

Symptoms of drought can be confused with other problems like fusarium wilt, moko disease etc. however, such problems are seen more in rainy season while drought in summer.

Water stress results out of severe shortage of water. This happens when there is no rainfall and also no irrigation to supplement the water requirement of the plant.

The water uptake of the plant will be affected. And as a consequence, most of the metabolic activity of the plant will be stopped.

White pipe is a disorder when banana plants outgrow their calcium or boron supply. The unfurling of the heart leaf is delayed which results in white pipe symptom. This normally occurs when there is a good summer shower during severe summer season.

• When banana plants outgrow their calcium or boron supply, unfurling of the heart leaf is delayed which results in white pipe symptom
• Due to delayed unfurling, the heart leaf becomes necrotic and subsequently rots

The problem is characteristic of the disorder and can be easily distinguished.

This occurs in the active growing stage of the crop. When there is excess phosphorous in the soil, the uptake of calcium or boron is affected resulting in this type of symptom. In ratoon bananas which are neglected, white pipe is common

When banana plants outgrow their calcium or boron supply, unfurling of the heart leaf is delayed which results in white pipe symptom. Due to delayed unfurling the heart leaf becomes necrotic and subsequently rots

Banana has a wide and thin leaf and is extremely sensitive to wind damage. Tearing of leaf lamina is found to reduce the yield of banana by 20 per cent. Further, if the wind velocity goes above 50 Km/hr, toppling of the plant can happen. Hence, adopting appropriate wind management strategy is a must in banana cultivation.

• Tearing of leaf lamina along the veins is the common symptom of wind damage.
• Breaking of leaf petiole and pseudostem can occur depending on the intensity of wind velocity
• Toppling of the plant can happen in high wind areas and also in situations where nematode or other problems damage the rhizome.

Wind damage is characteristic of the presence of wind in the area.

Wind with a velocity of 50 Km/hr or more causes the problem.

Wind results in tearing of leaf lamina. The interception of photosynthetic active radiation will get reduced. As a consequence there will be a reduction in the yield of the plant. Further, wind also increases the translocation loss and results in water stress. With strong wind, breakage of the plant is the serious problem.